礦物油對皮膚的廣泛益處

A review on the extensive skin benefits of mineral oil

綜述：礦物油對皮膚的廣泛益處

作者A.V. Rawlings and K. J. Lombard

AVR Consulting Ltd, Northwich, Cheshire, U.K. and Union Swiss, Cape Town, South Africa

來源International Journal of Cosmetic Science (IF=1.581)

編譯Aaron

Keywords: mineral oil, moisturisation, occlusivity

關鍵詞：礦物油，滋潤，封閉性

Synopsis

概要

This review was initially prepared in 2011 before Professor Johann Wiechers tragically passed away. It has been updated and is being published in his memory. It discusses the importance of mineral oil and its benefits to skin. Its source, structure, properties and efficacy are discussed. Mineral oil has been shown to improve skin softness and barrier function better than some other emollients using the gas-bearing dynamometer and standard water vapour transmission testing as well as in vivo studies showing its effects on suppressing transepidermal water loss (TEWL). It has also been subjected to the rigour of the newer in vivo confocal microscopic measurements now used for testing the performance of moisturizers by following the swelling characteristics of the stratum corneum and been found favourable compared with many vegetable oils. Its introduction as a cosmetic oil was in the late 1800s, and still today, it is used as one of the main components of moisturizers, a true testament to its cost to efficacy window. Naturally, it has physical effects on the stratum corneum, but it is expected that these will translate into biological effects simply through its mechanism of hydrating and occluding the stratum corneum from which many benefits are derived.

本篇綜述最初是在2011年準備的，在Johann Wiechers教授不幸去世之前。它已經更新了，並為了紀念他而發表。文章論述了礦物油的對皮膚的重要性和益處。對其來源、結構、性能和功效進行了探討。已經證明礦物油比一些其他的潤膚劑可以更好地改善皮膚柔軟度和屏障功能，使用含氣測力計和標準水蒸氣傳輸測試以及體內研究，表明對抑製表皮水分流失（TEWL）的作用。它也受到了新的體內共焦顯微鏡測量的嚴格考驗，這種方法現在用來測試潤膚霜的性能，依循角質層的膨脹特徵，並發現與許多植物油相比是有利的。它成為一種化妝品用油在19世紀後期，現在仍然作為一種保濕的主要成分使用，這是對其功效的真正證明。自然地，它對角質層有物理影響，但預期這些將僅僅通過角質層吸水和封閉轉化為生物效應，從中獲得許多益處。

Mineral oil: its source, its connection to the petrochemical industry, the process used to extract it and its usage

礦物油：來源，與石化行業的聯繫，用於提取及使用的過程

It is not known when mineral oil was first produced, but as a derivative of petroleum, it must have been after the discovery of crude oil, but even that is already known for thousands of years. The industrial drilling for petroleum started around 1852 with production rates increasing exponentially over the first decades. According to generally accepted theory (the biogenic petroleum origin theory), petroleum is derived from ancient fossilized organic materials. Crude oil and natural gas are products of heating ancient organic materials over geological time. Formation of petroleum occurs from the decomposition of organic material at elevated temperatures in the absence of oxygen. Today』s oil is formed from the preserved remains of prehistoric zooplankton and algae, which had settled to a sea or lake bottom in large quantities at depths where oxygen is no longer dissolved (the remains of prehistoric terrestrial plants, on the other hand, tended to form coal). Over geological time, the organic matter mixed with mud and was buried under heavy layers of sediment resulting in high levels of heat and pressure. This process caused the organic matter to change, first into a waxy material known as kerogen, which is found in various oil shales around the world, and then with more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons. This is the crude oil and gas that are being recovered nowadays in oil and gas fields, respectively. Petroleum is thus fossil plankton and algae derived material and hence a natural material. Its diverse biological origin and the wide variety of conditions under which petroleum is formed explain why petroleum is a complex mixture of many different materials, mainly hydrocarbons. Its generalized weight composition is paraffins (30%; range 15–60%), naphthenes (49%; range 30–60%), aromatics (15%; range 3–30%) and asphaltics (6%; range: remainder). Crude oil therefore needs to be refined before it can be used in modern applications such as petrol for cars, kerosene for planes, lubricants for engines or oil for heating homes, to name but a few.

目前尚不清楚礦物油是什麼時候被生產出來的，但作為石油的一種衍生物，一定是在發現原油之後，但即使是那樣也已經有數千年了。石油的工業鑽探開始於大約1852年，在最初的幾十年里，產量呈指數增長。根據普遍接受的理論（源於生物的石油起源理論），石油起源於遠古的化石有機材料。原油和天然氣是在地質時期加熱遠古有機材料的產物。石油是由於在沒有氧氣的情況下，有機物在高溫下分解而形成的。今天的石油是由史前浮遊動物和藻類保存下來的遺骸形成的，這些浮游生物和藻類大量沉積在海底或湖底深處，在那裡氧氣不再被溶解（另一方面，史前陸生植物的遺骸則傾向於形成煤）。在地質時期，有機物和泥沙混合，被埋在厚層的沉積物下，導致了高溫和高壓。這一過程引起了有機物的變化，首先轉變為一種稱為油母岩質的蠟質材料，它在存在於世界各地的油頁岩中，然後更多的熱量將其轉化成液態和氣態的烴類。這是目前在油氣田中分別被回收的原油和天然氣。因此，石油是浮游生物和藻類衍生的材料，所以是一種天然材料。它的多樣化生物起源以及形成石油的各種各樣條件解釋了為什麼石油是中許多不同材料組成的複雜混合物，主要是烴類。它的一般重量組成是石蠟（30%；範圍為15-60%），環烷烴（49%，範圍為30-60%），芳香烴（15%，範圍3-30%）和瀝青（6%；範圍：剩餘物）。因此在現代應用中，原油需要經過精鍊，例如車用汽油，航空用煤油，發動機潤滑油或者家庭採暖用油，僅舉這幾個例子。

Mineral oil, which is the topic of this report, is a complex mixture of highly refined saturated hydrocarbons, which are derived from petroleum through various refining steps and subsequent purification by acid or catalytic hydrotreatment. As the most purified form of petroleum that exists, mineral oil is not merely a by-product of petroleum but a specifically isolated and prepared fraction of petroleum with highly specialized product applications, among others, in food, cosmetics and pharmaceutics. A complex series of processing steps is needed to produce mineral oils with the physical properties and the level of purity required for use in cosmetics, food and pharmaceuticals. Crude petroleum oils are distilled and processed by various methods to make finished mineral oils. Distillation of the crude oil produces fractions that differ in boiling range, average molecular weight and viscosity. The fractions obtained following distillation can be further refined by solvent extraction that removes polar and polycyclic compounds. The refining process used to make the mineral oil discussed in this report consists of treatment with sulphuric acid or hydrogenation (i.e. treatment with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst at high pressure and temperature). Both processes are designed to remove polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, which are believed to be responsible for the historical finding of carcinogenicity of rodents after treatment with petroleum derivatives. Refined mineral oil is composed of two hydrocarbon types: parraffinics, which are branched-chain alkanes, and naphthenics, which are alkanes containing one or more saturated cyclic structures. For the non-chemist readers of this report, alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons, chemical compounds that consist only of the elements carbon (C) and hydrogen (H). In mineral oil, especially, the longer-chained hydrocarbons are present. The parraffinics (i.e. the saturated straight-chain or branched hydrocarbons) are characterized by a higher viscosity and cloud point than the naphthenics (the cyclo-paraffinic hydrocarbons) that are characterized by their non-waxy nature.

礦物油，作為文章的主題，是一種高度精鍊飽和烴的複雜混合物，是通過各種精鍊步驟從石油中提煉出來的，然後通過酸化或催化加氫精制而成。作為最精製的石油，礦物油不僅僅是石油的副產品，而是石油的一種特別分離和製備的部分，具有高度專業化的產品應用，包括食品、化妝品和醫藥等。需要一系列複雜的處理步驟來生產礦物油，使其物理性質和純度符合化妝品、食品和藥品的使用需要。原油經過蒸餾和各種方法加工，製得最終的礦物油。原油的蒸餾產生的餾分在沸騰範圍、平均分子量和粘度上有所不同。蒸餾後得到的餾分可以用溶劑萃取法進一步精鍊，去除極性和多環化合物。本文探討的礦物油所使用的的精鍊過程包括硫酸化或氫化處理（也就是高溫高壓和催化劑存在下加氫處理）。這兩個過程都被設計用來去除多環芳烴，這類石油衍生物被認為是嚙齒動物經其處理後，對致癌性的歷史上的發現負有責任。精製礦物油由兩類烴組成：屬於支鏈烷烴的石蠟烴，和有一個或多個飽和環狀結構的烷烴。對於本文的非化學讀者，烷烴是飽和烴，僅由碳（C）和氫（H）構成的化合物。尤其是在礦物油中，存在更長鏈的烴類。石蠟烴（也就是飽和直鏈或支鏈烴類）相較於特點是不含蠟的性質的環烷烴（脂環烴類），以更高的粘度和濁點為特徵。

The two hydrocarbon types can be separated via distillation and other physical processes. The ratio of these two chemical families and their molecular weight determines the physical properties of the resulting oils. Because of their complex chemical compositions, mineral oils are classified by their viscosities. Medicinal, cosmetic and food-grade oils are highly refined white mineral oils with a carbon number range from 15 to 25 for light and 25 to 50 heavy oils.

這兩種烴類型可以通過蒸餾和其他物理過程分離。這兩種化學同系物的比例和它們的分子量決定了由此產生的油的物理性質。由於它們的複雜化學組成，礦物油按粘度分類。醫藥級，化妝品級和食品級油類是高度精製的白油，其碳的數量範圍在15-25之間為輕礦物油，25-50為重礦物油。

Mineral oil has been used in cosmetics for more than a hundred years, but the exact date of the introduction of mineral oil in cosmetics could not be found. It has also been used in electrical and food applications. As extreme refining of crude petroleum is necessary, its introduction is estimated to have been around 1870–1880, as around that time the production of mineral oil was high enough at low costs. This combination of high production at low cost is probably also the reason why it was used as a cheaper alternative for vegetable oils. Table I lists a number of differences and similarities between vegetable oils and mineral oils used in cosmetics. This table indicates that both types of oil have their advantages and disadvantages. Although both products are nature-derived, the chemical process of manufacturing mineral oil is such that it does not meet the standards of 『naturals』 in cosmetics. However, its 『inertness』 makes it an extremely safe chemical that can even be used in food and pharmaceuticals. One can conclude from this that when mineral oil is used, it is more often than not used at high percentages in the formulations in which it is included.

礦物油已經在化妝品中使用超過了100年，但是將礦物油引入化妝品的確切日期卻不得而知。它也被用於電氣和食品的應用。由於原油的極度精鍊是必要的，它的引入時間估計在大約1870-1880年之間，因為在那段時間，礦物油的產量足夠高，價格便宜。高產量、低價格的組合可能也是它用作更廉價的植物油替代物的原因。表1列出了化妝品中使用的植物油和礦物油的一些不同和相似之處。這張表表明兩種油都有各自的優點和缺點。儘管兩種產品都是天然來源的，生產礦物油這樣的化學過程，導致了它不能滿足化妝品中「天然成分」的標準。然而，它的「惰性」使它成為一種非常安全的化學物質，甚至可以用於食品和藥物。由此可以得出結論：當使用礦物油時，配方中通常包含有更高百分比的含量。

Mineral oil is used in many topical applications and with added fragrance is marketed as baby oil. Although baby oil is primarily marketed as a generic skin ointment, other applications exist in common use. It is often used on infant 『diaper rashes』 to ease the inflammation. Similarly, it may alleviate mild eczema, particularly when the use of corticosteroid creams is not desirable. Mineral or baby oil can also be employed in small quantities (two to three drops daily) to clean inside ears.

礦物油有許多外部應用，在加入香精之後，成為市場中的嬰兒油。儘管嬰兒油主要作為一般的皮膚油膏來銷售，也有其他的常用用途。它常被用於嬰兒「尿布疹」來減輕炎症反應。類似的，它可以緩解輕度濕疹，尤其是使用皮質類固醇藥膏是不合適的時候。礦物油或者嬰兒油也能少量使用（每天2-3滴）來清理耳朵內部。

Mineral oil: its structure and properties

礦物油：結構與性質

Mineral oil is known under many different names. The reason for this is probably historical as the product was created long before common nomenclature was implemented. Synonyms include heavy mineral oil, light mineral oil, liquid paraffin, liquid petrolatum, mineral oil mist, paraffin oil, paraffinum liquidum, petrolatum liquid, petroleum oil, white mineral oil and white oil. To avoid any confusion, this mixture of hydrocarbons will be referred to in this report as mineral oil. It is known by CAS as 8012-95-1; 8020-83- 5 (wh.); 8042-47-5 (wh.); 39355-35-6; 79956-36-8; 83046-05-3; EINECS/ELINCS 232-384-2; 232-455-8 (wh.); INS905a.

礦物油有許多不同的名稱。其原因可能是由歷史造成的，因為這類產品在通用命名法實施很久之前就產生了。別名包括：重礦物油，輕礦物油，液體石蠟，液體凡士林，礦物質油霧，石蠟油，礦脂，凡士林液體，石油，白礦物油和白油。為了避免混淆，本篇報告中提到的這類烴混合物叫做礦物油。它被CAS稱為8012-95-1；8020-83- 5（wh.）；8042-47-5（wh.）；39355-35-6；79956-36-8；83046-05-3；EINECS/ELINCS 232-384-2；232-455-8（wh.）；INS905a。

According to the Specialty Chemicals Source Book, 4th Edition, the definition of mineral oil is 『a liquid mixture of hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum by intensive treatment with sulphuric and oleum, or by hydrogenation, or a combination, and consisting predominantly of saturated C15–C50 hydrocarbons』. It is a colourless, transparent, oily liquid that is odourless and tasteless. It is insoluble in water and ethanol, soluble in benzene, ether, petroleum ether, carbon disulphide and volatile oils. Its density is 0.83–0.86 kg L-1 for the light mineral oil variant and 0.875–0.905 kg L-1 for the heavy mineral oil variant. Its flashpoint is 229°C (or 444°F), whereas its surface tension is

根據《特種化學品源書》第4版，礦物油的定義為「一種烴類的液體混合物，從被硫酸和發煙硫酸強化處理過的、或通過加氫作用的，或兩者組合強化處理後的石油中獲得，主要由飽和C15-C50的烴類組成」。它是無色透明油狀液體，且無色無味。不溶於水和乙醇，可溶於苯，乙醚，石油醚，二硫化碳和揮發性油。輕礦物油型密度在0.83-0.86 kg L-1間，重礦物油型密度在0.875–0.905 kg L-1間。閃點為229°C（或444°F），表面張力為

The popularity of mineral oil as a cosmetic ingredient emerged in the last quarter of the nineteenth century because of its low cost and abundant supply. In the first quarter of the twenty-first century, we see a 『Back-to-Nature』 movement that is purely based on the perception of the consumer that anything derived from nature is better, safer and more efficacious, whereas anything synthetic is chemical, dangerous and toxic. Table II therefore lists the efficacy/capacity of vegetable oils and mineral oil for a series of physical and biological parameters. Again, as with Table I, the reader should keep in mind that 『the』 vegetable oil does not exist and that therefore only a range can be given for 『vegetable oils』.

礦物油作為化妝品的一種成分而普及出現在19世紀後四分之一，因為它成本低，供應充足。在21世紀的前四分之一，我們看到了「回歸自然」的運動，純粹是基於消費者的感知，即任何來自自然的事物都是更好，更安全和更有效的，而任何合成的事物是化學的，危險的和有毒的。因此表2列出了植物油和礦物油的功效/能力的一系列物理和生物參數。再一次的提醒，和表1一樣，讀者應當記住「特指的」植物油是不存在的，因此只能給「植物油」提供一個範圍。

Based on the findings in this table, the differences between vegetable oils and mineral oil are only marginal. The efficacy of mineral oil is mainly 『external』, that is, on top of the skin (where it leads to emolliency and skin moisturization via occlusivity), whereas vegetable oils as a class of chemicals are smaller and, even within a single oil, more chemically diverse; hence, they offer less occlusivity but a higher biological efficacy in specific applications (such as skin whitening, anti-itch, etc.). The sensory profile of mineral oil has been well described through the work of Wiechers and co-workers.

根據這張表的調查結果，植物油和礦物油之間的差別是很小的。礦物油的功效主要是「外部的」，即在皮膚上（通過封閉性，它導致滋潤和皮膚保濕），而植物油作為一種化學物質是比較小的，即使在一種油中，化學成分也是多樣化的；因此，它們提供了較少的封閉性，但在特定應用（比如皮膚美白，止癢等）具有較高的生物功效。礦物油的感官特性已經通過Wiechers和同事的工作得到了很好的描述。

Efficacy of mineral oil

礦物油的功效

Skin moisturization: Blank first identified the importance of water in softening the stratum corneum but excluded the benefits of oils having this effect. Peck and Glick came to similar conclusions demonstrating that mineral oil had no effect on the hardness of the stratum corneum. Similarly, Rieger and Deem found that mineral oil alone had no effect on stratum corneum extensibility, but they did show its effects on reducing water loss in vivo much like the early studies of Powers and Fox in vivo. The interpretation of the original studies on stratum corneum flexibility was erroneous as the authors did not take the effect of mineral oil as a mildly occlusive agent into account. In fact, it was not the mineral oil that improved stratum corneum flexibility but the water that was trapped because of the occlusive property of mineral oil.

皮膚保濕：Blank首先確認了水分在軟化角質層方面的重要性，但是排除了油類具有這種效果的好處。Peck和Glick得出了類似的結論：證明礦物油對角質層的硬度沒有影響。類似地，Rieger和Deem發現單獨的礦物油對擴展角質層沒有影響，但是他們確實顯示它在減少體內水分流失的影響，就像Powers和Fox早期的體內研究一樣。最初關於角質層柔韌性的研究解釋是不正確的，因為作者並沒有把作為一種溫和的封閉介質的礦物油的影響考慮進去。實際上，不是礦物油提高了角質層的靈活性，而是由於礦物油的封閉特性，水被鎖住了。

Although new mechanisms of action of active ingredients are being identified all the time, emolliency, occlusion and humectancy are the mainstay of action of moisturizers. Mineral oil possesses the first two of these benefits. Occlusion will deliver the greater efficacy as it helps to retain water in the skin rather than just masking superficial problems. To obtain occlusion from a cosmetic ingredient, two aspects are important: alkyl chain length and distribution as well as substantivity.

儘管有效成分的新作用機制一直被鑒別，潤滑性、封閉性和保濕性是保濕霜的主要作用。礦物油具有前兩種好處。封閉將帶來更大的功效，因為它幫助把水保持在皮膚中，而不是僅僅遮蔽表面問題。為了獲得化妝品成分中的封閉性，重要的是兩方面：烷基鏈的長度和分布以及親和力。

First of all, the molecules must all align and in doing so, form a tight 『palisade』 that prevents the passage of other molecules. This can be achieved by having straight alkyl chains of the same length. In contrast to vegetable oils where the molecules can be extremely diverse, mineral oil is almost nothing else but straight-chain alkyl chains. The difference between light and heavy mineral oil (the low- and high-viscosity variants, respectively) is that the light variant contains more cyclic (saturated) molecules that prevent the consistent build-up of the palisade. Light mineral oil is therefore less occlusive than heavy mineral oil. But the presence of (only) straight alkyl chains alone is not enough. If there are different alkyl chains with different chain lengths, this also allows for the existence of 『holes』 in the palisade fence. Heavy mineral oil may be predominantly straight-chain alkyl chains, but the chain length is highly variable, ranging from 25 to 50 carbon atoms. This is the reason that the occlusive nature of mineral oil is good, but not perfect.

首先，所有的分子都必須排列整齊，在這過程中，形成一道緊密的「柵欄」阻止其他分子通過，這可以通過具有相同長度的直鏈烷基來獲得。與分子結構可能極其多樣化的植物油相反，礦物油幾乎就是直鏈烷基鏈。輕礦物油和重礦物油（分別為低粘度和高粘度型）的區別是輕型包含了更多的環狀分子（飽和的）結構，阻止了柵欄的持續堆積。但僅僅只存在直鏈烷基是不夠的。如果有不同鏈長的不同烷基鏈，這也會允許在柵欄上存在孔洞。重礦物油可能主要是直鏈烷基，但是鏈長變化很大，範圍從25到50個碳原子。這就是礦物油的封閉性是很好的，但不是最好的原因。

The second aspect is the substantivity of the occluding oil. If the molecule penetrates the skin very well, the palisade disappears very quickly, so the resulting occlusion is not very high. This removal from the site of application is mainly caused by diffusion, both into the skin (skin permeability) as well as lateral diffusion on top of the skin. This is easily understood from the waxy nature of the latter.

第二部分是封閉油的親和性。如果分子能很好的穿透皮膚，那麼柵欄會非常快的消失，從而產生的封閉不是非常高。這種從應用地點的消除主要由擴散作用引起，進入皮膚（滲透進皮膚）和在皮膚上橫向擴散。這一點很容易從後者的蠟質特性中得到理解。

The viscosity of this waxy material is that high that it has no lateral diffusion and it is too big to penetrate, whereas mineral oil has some lateral diffusion but hardly any skin penetration. A disadvantage of vaseline petroleum jelly, however, is its unfavourable sensory profile. It is an effective moisturizer but absolutely not an elegant product. Mineral oil seems to be at the optimum of two opposing forces: it still has enough substantivity and occlusivity left to create skin moisturization but not enough substantivity to become unacceptable from a sensory point of view. Most other commonly used cosmetic emollients are too light (i.e. not viscous enough) to have this degree of substantivity, or if viscous, they are not sufficiently regularly shaped to allow the 『palisade』 formation. Fixed vegetable oils, however, tend to be a little bit heavier, and they may also hydrate skin to some extent, provided they are used in high enough concentrations. And this introduces the final proviso: concentration. You may have an oil that is sufficiently straight chained to give the 『palisade』 structure and sufficiently substantive to provide occlusivity, but if this oil is only present at small amounts in a formulation, there is still not enough occlusivity.

這種蠟質材料的粘度很高，沒有橫向擴散，並且它太大了，無法穿透，而礦物油有一些橫向擴散，但幾乎沒有皮膚穿透。然而，凡士林的一個缺點，是它的不佳的感官外形。它是一種有效的保濕劑，但絕對不是一種高雅的產品。礦物油似乎處於兩種對立力量的最佳狀態：它仍然有足夠的親和力和封閉性來創造皮膚的保濕但從感官的角度並沒有到難以接受程度的親和力。大多數其他常用的化妝品潤膚劑都太輕了（也就是粘性不足）以致於沒有這種程度的親和力，或者粘性夠了，它們不能形成有規則而又足夠的柵欄結構。然而，固定植物油往往要重一些，只要它們的濃度足夠高，在某種程度上，它們也會滋潤皮膚。這就引進了最後的限制條件：濃度。你可能有一種油，它有足夠的直鏈形成柵欄結構並且足夠實質性的提供封閉性，但是如果配方中存在的這種油僅是少量的，仍然沒有足夠的封閉性。

Strubmann et al. used polytetrafluoroethylene membranes to mimic skin and examined the effects of a variety of emollients on its water vapour permeability in which mineral oil was shown to be very occlusive compared with other 『fluid』 emollients (Fig. 1). Fromder et al. also compared a variety of emollients/gelatin mixtures for their occlusive properties in which mineral oil performed very well. However, it must be borne in mind that real skin was not used in either of these examples. Indeed, comparing the efficacy from the in vitro data to the in vivo TEWL measurements, the performance of all the emollients was less with mineral oil reducing baseline transepidermal water loss (TEWL) by 16% (for comparison, petroleum jelly reduced TEWL by 43%). Tsutsumi et al. demonstrated in vivo using TEWL that mineral oil gave an occlusivity to forearm skin of about 25% at and above 2 mg cm2, similar to the work of Osborne and Gerraughty. Lieb et al. [18] provided even better occlusivity from mineral oil in hamster skin in vitro. Changing the viscosity of the mineral oil can improve efficacy. By reducing its diffusion, even greater efficacy has been reported by Morrison with gelled mineral oils. The rationale for these effects was already explained previously.

Strubmann等使用聚四氟乙烯膜模擬皮膚，調研了一些潤膚劑的水蒸氣透濕性，其中礦物油與其他的液體潤膚劑相比，展現出非常的封閉性（圖1）。Fromder等也比較了一些潤膚劑/凝膠混合物的封閉性能，其中礦物油表現非常好。然而，必須記住這些例子中都沒有使用真正的皮膚。實際上，比較體外數據和體內表皮水分流失測量的功效，所有潤膚劑的表現都少於礦物油，它可以減少16%的表皮水分流失基線（相比而言，凡士林減少表皮水分流失為43%）。Tsutsumi等證明在體內使用表皮水分流失，礦物油對前臂皮膚的封閉性為25%左右，超過2 mg/cm2，與Osborne和Gerraughty的工作類似。Lieb等提供了礦物油在倉鼠體外皮膚上更好的封閉性。通過減少擴散，Morrison發表了關於稠化礦物油更高的功效。這些影響的原理在前文已經解釋過了。

（圖1）各種潤膚劑的水蒸汽傳輸率（1 肉豆蔻酸異丙酯；2 油酸乙酯；3 棕櫚酸異丙酯；4 硬脂酸異丙酯；5 2-乙基椰油酸己酯；6 2-乙基棕櫚酸己酯；7 油酸癸酯；8 2-乙基牛脂酸己酯；9 2-乙基硬脂酸己酯；10 油酸油醇酯；11 2-辛基十二烷基豆蔻酸酯；12 油醇芥酸酯；13 2-辛基十二烷基棕櫚酸酯；14 2-辛基十二烷基硬脂酸酯；15 礦物油。

Mineral oil, Johnson』s Baby Oil as reported by Jolly and Sloughfy, has been used to treat dry skin. However, to date, it has been reported to have similar efficacy to other oils. Nevertheless, the barrier effects of mineral oil can also be observed in the skin』s susceptibility to stinging from lactic acid. Sahlin et al. have reported that increasing the concentration of mineral oil in formulations containing the same concentration of lactic acid tended to decrease the stinging effect thereof, as the concentration of mineral oil increased from 10% to 50%. This suggests that the lactic acid was less capable of penetrating the additional barrier created by the mineral oil. The results of this experiment are shown in Fig. 2. Mineral oil has many applications in bath oils. Knox et al. described superior water dispersible bath oils in 1958. Taylor went on to prove that mineral oil type bath oils are better absorbed into skin than vegetable oils. Stolar came to similar conclusions but also found that mineral oils with increasing viscosities (and therefore reducing naphthenic content) deposited less onto skin in vivo. In vivo, mineral oil binds to skin better than vegetable oils, whereas Bollinger et al. and Knox et al. found conflicting results in vitro with the latter studies correlating with in vivo findings.

礦物油，由Jolly和Sloughfy 報道的強生嬰兒油，已經被用來治療乾燥的皮膚。然而，迄今為止，其他油類也被報道有類似的功效。雖然如此，礦物油的柵欄效應在皮膚對乳酸刺痛的敏感性方面也可以被觀察到。Sahlin等報道了隨著礦物油濃度從10%增加到50%，提高含有相同乳酸濃度的配方中礦物油的濃度，傾向於降低它的刺痛效果。這表明了乳酸較弱的穿透礦物油製造的額外障礙的能力。實驗結果如圖2所示。礦物油在沐浴油中有很多應用。1958年Knox等描述了一種優質水分散浴油。Taylor繼續證明了礦物油型沐浴油比植物油更易被皮膚吸收。Stolar得出了類似的結論，但也發現提升粘度的礦物油（因此減少環烷基含量）在體內較少的沉積在皮膚上。在體內，礦物油比植物油更好的與皮膚結合，而Bollinger等和Konx等發現了在體外的矛盾結果，後者的研究與體外的發現有關。

（圖2）在10%的礦物油和50%的礦物油中，用15%的乳酸水包油乳液混合在一起，感知刺痛隨著時間的程度。在9厘米的視覺模擬尺度上標記了刺痛的程度。中值，n = 19。最大程度(P = 0.077)之間存在顯著差異的趨勢，而在兩種配方之間曲線下區域的不明顯差異(AUC；P = 0.251)。

（圖3）應用一種含有脂肪酸或礦物油的乳狀液後皮膚柔軟度的改善。

Improvements in skin softness are an additional benefit that consumers can perceive from the application of oils. These improvements can be measured objectively using sensitive biomechanical techniques. Using the Dermaflex, Overgaard and Jemec showed the positive effects on improving skin extensibility for mineral oil, which lasted longer than treatment with water alone. Increased skin extensibility means a more flexible or elastic skin, a skin that can be stretched further but will still return to its original position. The highly sensitive gas-bearing electrodynamometer has also been used by Maes et al. to discriminate the effects of emollients on stratum corneum in vivo. Applied in emulsions, mineral oil was shown to induce greater skin softness compared with wax esters, triglycerides and fatty acids (Fig. 3). This effect may relate to its superior effects as an occlusive ingredient.

皮膚柔軟度的改善是消費者可以從使用油脂中感受到的額外好處。這些改善可以使用敏感生物力學技術來客觀的測量。通過使用利多卡因乙醇凝膠，Overgaard和Jemec展示了礦物油在他改善皮膚延展性的積極效應，比單獨使用水處理持續時間更長。皮膚延展性的提升意味著柔韌有彈性的皮膚，皮膚可以伸展的更長，但仍將回到原來的狀態。高敏含氣電測力計也被Maes等人用來區別潤膚劑對體內角質層的影響。與蠟酯、甘油三酯和脂肪酸相比，礦物油可引起更大的皮膚柔軟度（圖3）。這種影響可能與它作為一種封閉成分的優越作用有關。

Very long chain hydrocarbons have been reported by Brown et al. not to penetrate the skin to any large degree. Using radiolabelled hexadecane (C16H34) and docosane (C22H46) as n-alkanes of different chain length, they found that when applied in mineral oil, they hardly penetrated beyond the stratum corneum layer of pig skin in vitro with only 1.2% and 2.1% of the applied dose being in the epidermal and dermal layers. There was no penetration into the receptor fluids. Thus, these studies indicate the safety of these ingredients. However, it must be borne in mind that straight-chain alkanes were used in these studies and that branched together with cyclic alkanes are also found in mineral oil, and their delivery characteristics may be different.

Brown等報道了長鏈烴在很大程度上不穿透皮膚。通過使用放射性標記的十六烷和二十二烷作為不同鏈長的n-烷烴，它們發現應用於礦物油中時，它們在體外幾乎不穿透過豬皮膚的角質層，僅僅是在表皮和真皮層用量的1.2%和2.1%。沒有滲透到受體的體液中。因此，這些研究表明了這些成分的安全性。然而，必須牢記這些研究中使用的長鏈烷烴和支鏈環烷烴也在礦物油中存在，它們的傳遞特性可能不同。

Backhouse et al. came to similar conclusions regarding the limited penetration of mineral oil into skin. Stamatas et al. have also shown limited penetration of mineral oil into the stratum corneum. Using their method of in vivo Raman spectroscopy, they also showed an increase in stratum corneum thickness of around 10% further demonstrating the effect of occlusion leading to the reported effects on skin softness discussed previously. Figure 4 illustrates the results of this investigation. When using vegetable oils (in this study, sweet almond oil and jojoba oil) and mineral oil (called paraffin oil in this publication), the increase in stratum corneum thickness (which is a measure for its water uptake) is increased to the same extent, namely 10%. The application of petrolatum, which is much more occlusive, results in a significantly larger increase in stratum corneum thickness.

Backhouse等得出了關於礦物油有限度的滲入皮膚的類似結論。Stamatas等也展示了礦物油有限度的滲入角質層。他們的方法中使用體內拉曼光譜，也發現了角質層厚度大約10%的增加，進一步地證明了封閉作用對前文所討論的皮膚柔軟度引起的已報道的影響。圖4舉例說明了這次調查的結果。當使用植物油（本研究中為甜杏仁油和霍霍巴油）和礦物油（為石蠟油），角質層厚度的增加（一種對其水吸收的測量方法）達到了相同的程度，也就是10%。更為封閉的礦脂的應用，導致角質層厚度顯著增加。

（圖4）由於兩種植物油和礦物油（石蠟油）的應用，角質層厚度的增加（角質層吸水量的測量）。

In this process of interacting with the stratum corneum lipids, mineral oil, like all other oils, will disrupt its structure to some extent. However, when examined by electron microscopy as reported by Warner et al., a more homogeneous structure than that present in soap-induced dry skin was found.

在與角質層脂質相互作用的過程中，礦物油和其他的油類一樣，將在某種程度上破壞它的結構。然而，由Warner等報道當用電子顯微鏡檢查時，發現了比先前肥皂引起的乾性皮膚更均勻的結構。

However, Patzelt et al. found minimal penetration of mineral oil and other oils into the stratum corneum (Fig. 5) and that mineral oil』s behaviour on suppressing TEWL was similar to vegetable oils, but that jojoba oil was the worst performing vegetable oil tested (Table III).

然而，Patzelt等發現了礦物油和其他油類進入角質層的最小滲透量（圖5），礦物油的抑製表皮水分流失的表現與植物油類似，但霍霍巴油是測試的植物油中表現最差的（表3）。

（圖5）用熒光激光掃描顯微鏡分析了大豆油（a）、杏仁油（b）、荷荷巴油（c）、鱷梨油（d）、石蠟油（e）、礦脂（f）在皮膚上的分布情況。

Mineral oil and comedogenicity

礦物油及其致粉刺性

『Acne cosmetica』 was coined in the early 1970s to describe the association between cosmetic use and acne breakouts. A variety of oils, including mineral oil, at the time were thought to be inducing this effect by blocking pores. Animal models were quickly developed. Fulton described the comedogenicity of an extensive list of commonly used ingredients in skincare products of which mineral oil was reported to be mildly comedogenic but nowhere near as much as other ingredients. Conflicting results were found by Mills and Kligman in their rabbit and human models, in which mineral oil was reported not to be comedogenic. The American Academy of Dermatology proposed guidelines to try to interpret the differences in the animal to human data, and they concluded that 1–2 comedones in animal testing would be unlikely to be an indicator of comedogenicity in humans. This is precisely the comedogenic activity of 100% mineral oil reported in five studies, that is, zero. Furthermore, DiNardo tested in humans the formulations containing mineral oil up to 30% and found that there was no comedogenicity potential of mineral oil. A wide series of products were tested that showed a comedogenic activity in the same range as the negative control. The overall conclusion is that mineral oil is not comedogenic. But this article also reveals that there is a difference between animal models and human models: the rabbit model is much more prone to comedogenicity than the human model, but all the earlier data that condemned mineral oil originate from animal models, a situation scientists even say will be difficult to correct.

「化妝品性痤瘡」在二十世紀七十年代早期被創造出來描述化妝品的使用與粉刺的聯繫。各種油類，包括礦物油，在那時都被認為因為阻塞毛孔引起了這種影響。動物模型很快被開發出來。Fulton描述了一份廣泛使用的護膚產品中成分清單的致粉刺性，其中礦物油被報道為溫和的致粉刺成分，但遠遠不及其他成分。Mills和Kligman在他們的兔子和人體模型中發現了矛盾的結果，其中礦物油被報道不會引起粉刺。美國皮膚科學會提出了試圖解釋動物和人體數據差異的指導方針，他們總結為動物試驗中的1-2個粉刺不太可能是人體實驗中致粉刺性的指標。而這正是礦物油100%致粉刺性5份研究中已報道的，也就是0。此外，DiNardo在人體上測試了含有多達30%礦物油的配方，並發現礦物油沒有致粉刺的可能性。一系列產品經過測試，顯示出與陰性對照相同範圍內的致粉刺性。總體的結論是礦物油不會引起粉刺。但本文也揭示了動物模型和人體模型的區別：兔子模型比人體模型更易產生粉刺，但所有早期的數據都是來自動物模型的，科學家們甚至認為這種情況很難糾正。

Mineral oil: UVB irradiation and photocarcinogenesis

礦物油：紫外輻射和光致癌

As mineral oil has a high refractive index close to that of skin, it actually improves the optical behaviour of skin, that is, it allows slightly more light to penetrate into the skin rather than the skin reflecting it.

因為礦物油和皮膚接近的高折射率，它實際上改善了皮膚的光學行為，也就是說，它允許稍微多一點的光線進入皮膚，而不是皮膚反射它。

Several publications have reported on the effects of emollients increasing skin UV sensitivity and thereby photocarcinogenesis. The most relevant publication to mineral oil is that from Kligman and Kligman. The latter studies have only been conducted in mice, are of limited size, and the human relevance has not been determined. Although animal studies cannot be ignored, they are still insufficient as a risk assessment tool. The hairless mouse model used is a mutant mouse that is highly sensitive towards the development of skin tumours, and the decades』 long-term usage of moisturizers without any relationship to tumour development exemplifies the lack of relevance of these mouse models. Nevertheless, the studies are in the public domain. Equally, they are contradictory in that acute application of mineral oil increased UVB-induced damage, but chronic applications actually provided protection against UV. The human studies show that typical moisturizers containing 10% mineral oil or glycerol decrease the minimal erythemal dose (MED) of skin to UVB irradiation by 5–7.6% (i.e. they make the skin slightly more sensitive to UV). However, to put this in context, shaving or using an exfoliating treatment such as sponges or cosmetic uses of alpha hydroxyacids is reported to decrease MED by approximately 12–13.2%. Although this may sound rather dramatic, it should also be realized that the average MED increase between January and April was 14%. However, Schleider et al. reported that mineral oil only had a small effect (5–13% reduction of MED), whereas peanut oil and corn oil had no effect and petrolatum was actually beneficial. Equally, Hudson-Peacock et al. found a reduction in MED by 16% for mineral oil. Conversely, Behrens-Williams et al. found that an emulsion containing35% mineral oil, 30% cetyl stearyl alcohol and vaseline had no effect on UVB-induced erythema, and Otman et al. found that a variety of mineral oil-containing emulsions decreased the sensitivity to UV, but it should be realized that these formulations also contained soft paraffin waxes.

一些出版物報道了潤膚劑對增加皮膚紫外線敏感以及因此的光致癌性的影響。與礦物油最相關的出版物來自Kligman和Kligman。後者的研究僅僅在小鼠中進行，規模有限，人類的相關性尚未確定。儘管動物研究不能被忽視，但他們作為一種風險評估工具，仍然是不充分的。使用的無毛小鼠是一種突變小鼠，對皮膚腫瘤的發展高度敏感，幾十年來，長期使用潤膚霜與腫瘤的發展沒有任何關係，證明了這些小鼠模型缺乏相關性。然而，這些研究是在公共領域進行的。同樣地，他們在因礦物油的急性應用而提升紫外線引起的傷害方面是矛盾的，但長期應用實際上提供了紫外線防護。人體研究顯示含有10%礦物油或甘油的典型潤膚霜將紫外輻射皮膚最小紅斑用量（MED）減少了5-7.6%（也就是說，它們使皮膚對紫外線更加敏感）。然而，聯繫上下文，剃鬚或使用去角質的方法，如海綿或化妝品α-羥基酸的使用被報道降低MED 大約12-13.2%。儘管這聽起來很有戲劇性，應當意識到在1月到4月之間的平均MED增長是14%。然而，Schleider等報道了礦物油僅僅有很小的影響（5-13%MED減少量），花生油和玉米油沒有影響，而礦脂實際上是有效的。同樣地，Hudson-Peacock等發現了礦物油減少MED達16%。相反地，Behrens-Williams等發現一份含有35%礦物油，30%棕櫚醇和凡士林的乳液對紫外線引起的紅斑沒有影響，Otman等發現一些含礦物油的乳液減少了紫外線的敏感性，但是應該意識到這些配方中也含有柔軟的石蠟。

The consensus of evidence of the effects of UV irradiation and mineral oil in humans is that mineral oil has a slight, reducing effect on the MED of skin of an order similar to that of glycerol because of its refractive index. Its long-term usage suggests that any detrimental effect on skin is probably minor and only as severe as the changes in sun sensitivity that occurs between the seasons.

紫外線輻射和礦物油對人體影響證據的共識是礦物油對皮膚MED有輕微的、減少的影響，由於其和甘油類似的折射率。它的長期使用表明，對皮膚的任何有害影響都可能是輕微的，而且和只有在季節間發生的太陽敏感性的變化一樣嚴重。

Conclusion

結論

Mineral oil is a complex mixture of highly refined saturated branched-chain and napthenic hydrocarbons. Poly aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) that are known carcinogens are not present in mineral oil. The different grades are classified by their viscosities because of their complex compositions. They are used in many industrial, mechanical, medicinal, food and cosmetic applications.

礦物油是一種複雜的混合物，有高度精鍊的飽和長鏈烴和環烷烴。已知的致癌物聚芳烴（PAHs）不存在於礦物油中。由於它們複雜的組分，不同的等級按黏度分類。它們用於許多工業，機械，醫藥，食品和化妝品的應用。

Mineral oil is an efficacious skin moisturizer providing occlusivity and emolliency. Its occlusive effects lead to increases in stratum corneum water content by reducing transepidermal water loss. Through this mechanism, mineral oil is used to treat dry skin conditions in both leave-on and wash-off applications. It has been shown to improve skin softness better than wax esters, triglycerides and fatty acids. Its effect is largely confined to the epidermal layers, and as a result of its limited penetration, it is considered to be a very safe ingredient for cosmetic use.

礦物油提供封閉性和滋潤性，是一種有效的皮膚保濕劑。它的封閉效果通過減少表皮水分流失，導致了角質層中水含量的增長。憑藉這種機理，礦物油在免洗型和沖洗型的應用中被用來治療乾性皮膚狀況。它在改善皮膚柔軟度方面已經顯現出優於蠟酯，甘油三酯和脂肪酸。其作用主要限於表皮層，並且因為它有限的滲透性，它被認為是化妝品使用中一種非常安全的成分。

Early animal studies suggested that mineral oil was comedogenic, but the evidence (using more recent human models) and consensus of opinion is now the opposite. However, because of its high refractive index, it actually improves the optical behaviour of skin, and as more light can now enter the skin, it has a slight reducing effect on skin MED. This effect, however, is no more than that of other cosmetic treatments and no different to seasonal effects on lowering MED. Recent animal studies have suggested that emollients including mineral oil may contribute to UV-induced photocarcinogenesis. However, these studies were of a very limited size and conducted in a mutant mouse that is highly sensitive to UV. Nevertheless, the relevance of these studies to human use of mineral oil is limited as there is no evidence to tumour development.

早期的動物研究認為礦物油是致粉刺成分，但現在證據（使用最新的人體模型）和輿論的意見是相反的。然而，由於它的高折射率，它實質上的改善了皮膚的光學行為，因此現在更多的光纖可以進入皮膚，它對皮膚MED有輕微的降低作用。然而，這種效果並不比其他化妝品處理多，和季節性影響降低MED沒有什麼不同。最近的動物研究認為包括礦物油在內的潤膚劑可能會促使紫外線誘導的的光致癌發生。然而，這些研究規模十分有限，並且是在對紫外線高度敏感的突變小鼠身上進行的。雖然如此，這些研究對人類使用礦物油的相關性是有限的，因為沒有證據表明腫瘤的發展。

Comparisons with vegetable oils have been made wherever possible throughout this report. The main difference between vegetable oils and mineral oil is the wide variety of chemistry that may be present in vegetable oils (such as unsaturated, aromatic groups), whereas mineral oil contains mainly straight-chain hydrocarbons. As a consequence, the reasons for using vegetable oils and mineral oil are very different. Vegetable oils are used in cosmetics in relatively small amounts to obtain a specific effect of a specific ingredient with, for instance, a specific receptor in the skin. A very precisely defined chemical structure is necessary to achieve such a specific effect. Mineral oil is typically used in much higher concentrations for its emolliency, the soft skin feel that it provides to a formulation. This is a physical effect and not a biological effect. Another reason for using mineral oil is its occlusivity, which again is a physical effect and not a biological effect, although this does result in a biological effect: skin moisturization and a dampening of inflammatory responses.

在本報告中，儘可能的與植物油作出了比較。植物油和礦物油間的主要區別在於植物油中可能含有廣泛的化學物質種類（比如不飽和鍵、芳烴基），而礦物油主要含有直鏈烴。因此，使用植物油和礦物油的原因是非常不同的。化妝品中使用的植物油是相對少量的，為了獲得特定成分的特定效果，比如皮膚中的特定受體。要達到這種特定的效果，必須有一個非常精確的化學結構。礦物油通常因為滋潤性而使用高得多的濃度，它提供給配方一個柔軟的皮膚感覺。這是一種物理影響而不是生物影響。另外一個使用礦物油的原因是它的封閉性，又是一種物理影響而不是生物影響，儘管這確實導致了一種生物影響：保濕和抑制炎症反應。

Reference: omitted

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