英語中的漢語借詞告訴我們什麼？
借詞、文化、歷史
世界各主要語言都存在大量的外來語，這是不同國家、不同民族和不同文化在各領域的不斷交流和融合的結果。外來語首先是語言對各種文化差異的反映，其次是對不同文化的碰撞和交流過程的生動記錄。作為一種目前使用範圍最為廣泛的國際性語言，「英語在其漫長的歷史發展過程中，幾乎吸取了世界上所有主要語言的大量有用的辭彙。據統計，英語辭彙總量中，約有百分之八十來自其他語言，其中大部分已經同化成為英語的基本辭彙，而另一部分則依然保留其外來語的特性。」（朱和中，2000）並且，英語從其他語言（包括漢語）中借入詞語的進程從未停止過。
英語中的外來語絕大多數來源於印歐語系的各種語言，而一小部分來源於漢藏語系及其他語系。而「漢語因為是具有聲調的表意文字，理論上講，這一特點影響了英語對漢語詞語的借入，但是，大規模的英語到漢語和漢語到英語的詞語借入已經毫無困難地發生了（Tom McArthur：82）。」據估計，英語中來源於漢語的辭彙也已達到約1000個（Tom McArthur：119）。顯然，英語中的這些漢語外來語記錄了中華文化與西方文化交流碰撞的歷史。
根據Dennis Freeborn，有記載的漢語詞語最早進入英語發生在16世紀晚期和17世紀初（DennisFreeborn：351），如lychee/litchi（荔枝，1588），sampan（舢板，1620），tea（茶，1645-55）。這一時期，隨著新航路的開闢和科學技術的發展，歐洲列強大規模的殖民運動開始，包括對美洲大陸的殖民和亞洲大陸的殖民和侵略，葡萄牙殖民者強佔我國的澳門，荷蘭殖民者奪取了我國台灣和澎湖列島，中西方文化開始直接接觸和碰撞，中國特有的一些事物和現象開始為西方所認識並傳到西方。
18世紀，開始於十七世紀的歐洲資本主義迅速發展進一步加快，科學與文化都有很大的進步，而清政府卻對外部世界茫然不知，仍然奉行夜郎自大、閉關鎖國政策。中西方文化的接觸和交流只是一些零星的活動。英語從漢語借入的辭彙有ketchup（番茄醬，1711），pekoe（白毫，1712），souchong（小種茶，1760），等等。
19世紀早期，情況與十八世紀沒有太大區別，到了19世紀三、四十年代，英國通過鴉片戰爭打開了中國封閉的大門，緊接著西方列強紛至沓來，中西方文化開始大規模接觸和碰撞。這一時期被英語借入的有代表性的漢語辭彙有kowtow（叩頭，1804），shanghai（誘拐綁架，誘騙或迫使，1870-1875），chop-suey（雜碎，1888），等等。
到了20世紀，中西文化交流進一步增加，有更多的漢語詞語被英語借入，有諸如chow mein (炒麵，1903)，shih-tzu (獅子狗，1921)，mahjong (麻將，1922)，gung ho (工合；賣力的，投入的，1942)，dim sum (點心，1948)，wok (鑊，鐵鍋，1952)，等等。事實上，隨著我國全方位的改革開放和更進一步融入國際社會，這種進程仍在進行並將繼續下去。
---劉連章：英語中的漢語外來語及其文化透視（節選）
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今天，我們來聽讀一篇來自VOA的廣播稿，穿越歷史，穿越時空，看看從這些辭彙我們可以學到什麼？又能得到什麼樣的啟發？
Some Very "American" Words Come from Chinese
By Alice Bryant
20 February, 2018
On a recent program, we told you the stories of English words borrowed from other languages. Today, we will tell you about words that English has taken from Chinese.
Many of the Chinese words that are now part of English were borrowed long ago. They are most often from Cantonese or other Chinese languages rather than Mandarin.
Let"s start withkowtow.
kowtow
The English wordkowtowis a verb that means to agree too easily to do what someone else wants you to do, or to obey someone with power in a way that seems weak.
Itcomes from the Cantonese wordkau tau, which means "knock your head." It refers to the act ofkneelingand lowering one"s head as a sign of respect tosuperiors– such asemperors, elders and leaders. In the case of emperors, the act required the person to touch their head to the ground.
Britain"s Lord George Macartney refused to "kau tau" to theQianlong Emperor. Soon after, the English word "kowtow" was born.
In1793, Britain"s King George III sent Lord George Macartney and other trade ambassadors to China to negotiate a trade agreement. The Chinese asked them to kowtow to the Qianlong Emperor. As the story goes, Lord Macartney refused for his delegation to do more than bend their knees. He said that was all they were required to do for their own king.
It is not surprising, then, that Macartney left China without negotiating the trade agreement.
After that, critics used the word kowtow when anyone was toosubmissiveto China. Today, the usage has no connection to China, nor any specific political connection.
北京西北：
「磕頭」或「叩頭」，作為一種禮儀在中國歷史悠久。春節剛過吧？你一定知道在中國，很多地方依然流行農曆新年晚輩向長輩叩頭拜年的習俗。舊時候，一般情況下，人們需要行叩頭大禮的對象如下：天地君親師。當然，也有一些這種幾種情況意外的特殊情況，比如跪謝恩人（這個可以有！），比如妻子讓丈夫跪搓衣板或鍵盤（我竟然不厚道的笑出聲來！）。
上文說到中國清代一個著名的公案，就是由馬嘎爾尼率領的英國通商使團訪問天朝覲見乾隆皇帝。要行三拜九叩大禮嗎？清朝政府要求英國使臣按照各國貢使覲見皇帝的一貫禮儀，行三跪九叩之禮。英使認為這是一種屈辱而堅決拒絕。禮儀之爭自天津，經北京，而繼續到熱河。乾隆帝聞訊，勃然動怒，下令降低接待規格。後來清朝大臣說番邦的野蠻人不懂禮數，還有一說就是這些野蠻人膝蓋少一塊骨頭，無法下跪。我覺得吧，這就是英國人的不對了。他們不也常說「Wehn in Rome, Do as the Romans do」嗎？
gung-ho
Another borrowed word that came about through contact between two nations isgung-ho.
In English, the wordgung-hois an adjective that means extremely excited about doing something. The Chinese characters "gōng" and"hé" together mean "work together, cooperate."
Theoriginalterm--gōngyè hézuòshè --means Chinese Industrial Cooperatives.The organizations were established in the 1930s by Westerners in China topromoteindustrialand economic development.
Lt.Colonel Evans Carlson of the United States Marine Corps observed these cooperatives while he was in China. He was impressed, saying "...all the soldiersdedicatedthemselves to one idea and worked together to put that idea over."
He then began using the termgung-hoin the Marine Corps to try to create the same spirit he had witnessed. In 1942, he used the word as atrainingsloganfor the 2nd Marine Raider Battalion during World War II. The men were often called the "Gung Ho Battalion." From then, the wordgung-hospread as a slogan throughout the Marine Corps. Today, its meaning has no relation to the military.
北京西北：
這個詞你get了嗎？「工合」，也就是「工業合作社」的簡稱。這個詞反映了近代中國民族工業的發展和民族資本主義的萌芽（這可是官方語言的表述）。這個詞進一步引申為「extremely excited about doing something」。工業生產需要眾多人的合作，非自給自足的小農經濟可比。現代社會，「工合」成為一種主導性的生活方式和生產方式。
typhoon
In English, atyphoonis a very powerful and destructive storm that occurs around the China Sea and in the South Pacific.
The word history of typhoon had a far less direct path to the English language than gung-ho. And not all historical accounts are the same.
But,according to theMerriam-Webster New Book of Word Histories, the first typhoons reported in the English language were in India and were called "touffons" or "tufans."
The wordtufanoral-tufanis Arabic and means violent storm or flood. The English came across this word in India and borrowed it astouffon.
Later, when English ships encountered violent storms in the China Sea, Englishmen learned the Cantonese wordtai fung, which means "great wind." The word"s similarity totouffonis only by chance.
The modern form of the word – typhoon – was influenced by the Cantonese but respelled to make it appear more Greek.
北京西北：
「颱風」。住在海邊的朋友尤其是南方海濱的朋友應該又深切體會。地球的海洋面積佔地球表面絕大多數，全世界範圍內每年都會形成無數的颱風，颱風的可怕破壞力讓人不寒而慄。颱風所到之處遮天蔽日、驚濤拍岸、摧枯拉朽、大雨滂沱！每每讓人想到大自然的力量之令人驚懼以及人類的渺小和脆弱！這個詞是根據粵語的發音轉寫進入英文，已經成為英語中的基本辭彙。
kumquat
A kumquat is a fruit that looks like a small orange. It is native to South Asia and the Asia-Pacific.
The wordkumquatcomes from the Cantonese wordkam-kwatorgām-gwāt, meaning "golden orange." Gām means "golden" and gwāt means"citrus fruit" or "orange." The word also refers to the plant that carries this fruit.
In1846, a collector for the LondonHorticulturalSociety introduced kumquats to Europe. Not long after, the fruit found its way to North America.
北京西北：
「金橘」，或「金桔」。一種南方的常見水果，你一定吃過。怎麼讀起來不像「金桔」？一點都不稀奇，不是從mandrin轉寫進入英文的，又是粵語！這也說明了南方沿海地區在中外文化交流史上的地位。這種水果是「金桔」，不是什麼「康誇」！
chow
Another food-related word from Chinese ischow. The English wordchowis slang for "food." American English speakers also use the phrasal verb"chow down," which can mean to eat something quickly and without good manners.
It comes from the Cantonese verbch"ao, which means "to stir-fry" or "to cook."
The American English usage of the wordchowas "food" dates back to 1856 in California. Chinese laborers built the railroads in that state. Back then, the word mainly referred to Chinese food. Today it refers to all kinds of food.
北京西北：
「炒」。說起吃，其他國家和民族都得對我們頂禮膜拜俯首稱臣心服口服外帶佩服！中華飲食文化博大精深源遠流長，「八大菜系」也只是其中一小部分。光是烹調方法就說不盡，如「煎炒烹炸溜烤涮蒸煮燉……」！「炒」是一種常見的做菜方法，進入英文毫不奇怪，進一步引申代表中國菜。對了，又是來自粵語！一種說法是加州修建鐵路時華工把這個詞連同中國菜帶到了美國。
ketchup
Most Americans would have a hard time believing that ketchup was not created right here in the U-S-A.
Ketchup is America"s most popularcondiment. But, as VOA Learning Englishreportedlast year, the story of ketchup began more than 500 years ago in Southeast Asia.
The word ketchup most likely comes from the wordke-tsiap, from a Chinese dialect called Amoy. The word originally referred to a type ofsaucemade from mixing pickled fish with spices.
And, historians say, the sauce was probably first created ina Chinese community in northern Vietnam. Later, this sauce would reach Indonesia and be calledkecap.
The word first met the English language in the late 17th century, when a British colony in Indonesia came into contact with this sauce.
Back in England, the English first used the word to refer to many types of sauces.
Later, English settlers brought ketchup with them to the American colonies, but the condiment did not contain tomatoes until the mid-19th century.
Join us again soon to learn the history of English words borrowed from other languages.
北京西北：
「番茄醬」。這個詞據考證來自廈門方言，原意是指一種醬料，本來與番茄無關。有廈門的讀者朋友嗎？你又發言權啊！現在這個詞用來泛指醬料或醬汁，尤其是指番茄醬。
春節過了，給父母「kowtow」了，開始工作。拿出「gung-ho」的精神努力工作吧。晚上下班，「chow」幾個菜，加上點「ketchup」，味道一定不錯。餐後水果來點「kumquat」，好極了！不過，南方海邊的朋友仍然需要多多關注「typhoon」預警。祝你狗年大吉、生活幸福、工作順利！
I"m Pete Musto. And I"m Alice Bryant.
Alice Bryant wrote this story for Learning English. Ashley Thompson was the editor.
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Words in This Story
kneel– v. to be in a position in which both of yourknees are on the floor
superior– n. a person of higher rank or status than another
submissive– adj. willing to obey someone else
original– adj. happening or existing first or at thebeginning
promote– v. to help something happen, develop or increase
dedicate– v. to use time, money, energy or attention forsomething)
slogan– n. a word or phrase that is easy to remember andis used by a group or business to attract attention
horticultural– adj. related to the science of growing fruits,vegetables and flowers
pickled– adj. preserved with salt water or vinegar
condiment– n. something (such as salt, mustard, or ketchup)that is added to food to give it more flavor
sauce– n. a thick liquid that is eaten with or on foodto add flavor to it
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